EARLY METAL-WORKING
  
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Copper working was known in Ancient Egypt c. 4,400 BC - 2,000 years before its adoption in Asia Minor and 2,500 earlier than in Europe.

THE OPEN HEARTH PROCESS
Early Egyptian sources describe how pieces of metallic ore were were laid upon glowing sticks of charcoal whilst youths sat around this hearth blowing down tubes to provide the necessary forced draught. The molten metal which resulted from the process dripped through the embers into a clay crucible below.

Later, the power of human lungs to provide the necessary stream of air was replaced by leather bellows and the crude early crucible by by a mould, either fashioned from clay or engraved in stone. The articles produced in this fashio bore the relief of the mould on one side, while the other (representing the molten surface of the metal in the mould) was near flat.

VALVE MOULDS
The earliest valve moulds have come down to us from the Europe of the Middle and Late Bronze Age. These moulds consisted of two blocks of stone the meeting faces of which were worked to flat surfaces and the negative of half of the object to be produced being engraved into each face. The two halves of the mould needed to be held together during the casting process and some had grooves engraved into their backs to prevent the thongs used to secure them from slipping from position.

More complicated valve moulds composed of three or even four parts were used from early times but none are known to have survived into modern times, we have only the castings which were produced in them from which to infer their existence.

THE LOST WAX PROCESS
The lost wax or cire purdue process was also used for producing castings. It was used by the craftsmen of the Rennaisance but was probably also known to the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.

FINISHING
Edges were put on the castings by hammering while they were white-hot followed by grinding. They were frequntly finished by polishing with sand or other fine abrasive material.
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Evidence of a brisk trade as early as 3,000 BC has been found from places as far apart as as Denmark and Mesopotamia.

In Asia Minor, clay tablets bearing cuneiform inscriptions have been uncovered and deciphered and prove to be records of business transactins between bankers and metal merchants. Ancient Egyptian records of near contemporary date refer to metal markets.

Although prehistoric Europe was fragmented and barbarian, England possessed tin, Ireland gold and the countries bordering the Baltic possessed amber. This caused merchants from the Mediterranean to travel far into northern European waters to trade in these commodities.
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BRONZE
COPPER
  THE BRONZE AGE
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